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After 378 days without windows, the sounds of the outside world, or real-time calls with family and friends, four research volunteers stepped out of NASA’s Mars Dune Alpha habitat on Oct. 31, completing the agency’s second yearlong Mars surface simulation. 

Ross Elder, Ellen Ellis, James Spicer, and Matthew Montgomery entered the roughly 1,700-square-foot, 3D-printed habitat at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston on Oct. 19, 2025, for CHAPEA (Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog) Mission 2. 

The crew participated in simulated Marswalks, robotic operations, habitat maintenance, exercise, and crop cultivation. 

“Their work means more than completing a mission,” said Johnson Director Vanessa Wyche. “It is about preparing for the challenges of human exploration beyond Earth, gathering the knowledge we need to protect crew health and performance, and paving the way for future missions to the Moon and, one day, Mars.” 

NASA astronaut Jack Hathaway put the crew’s time in isolation into perspective: While they were inside the habitat, he completed a 237-day mission aboard the space station and returned to Earth.  

During that same period, the Artemis II astronauts traveled around the Moon and set the record for the farthest humans have traveled from Earth. NASA also celebrated 25 years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station on Nov. 2, 2025. 

“The reality of what you guys did here required immense physiological and psychological strength, teamwork, and human grit,” Hathaway said. 

Supported by researchers and ground teams across the agency, the CHAPEA crew collected health and performance data while navigating limited resources and communication delays of up to 22 minutes each way.  

Ross Elder: Commander and Test Pilot 

Elder brought a U.S. Air Force experimental test pilot’s approach to leading the crew. He found simulated Marswalks and robotic exploration “uncannily similar” to operating as part of a flight. From inside the habitat, crew members remotely operated a drone and a rover to survey terrain and identify or collect rock samples.  

The demanding Marswalk schedule also sharpened his understanding of the physical preparation future explorers will need. Preparing suits, completing airlock procedures, and making long traverses took time and stamina. He emphasized nutrition, exercise, and rest as essential to sustaining that pace. 

His steadfast leadership and mission focus drew praise at egress for keeping the team motivated and improving. For Elder, seeing his crewmates combine their strengths was a highlight of the mission. 

“The real magic has been the privilege and pleasure of seeing everyone come together, with the makings of one of the finest teams I’ve ever been a part of,” Elder said.  

Ellen Ellis: Medical Officer and Tactical Thinker 

Ellis, a U.S. Space Force officer with experience at the National Reconnaissance Office, brought a background in military operations and systems engineering. As medical officer, she helped organize biological sample collections and prepare supplies for the crew’s health research.  

As procedures became familiar, she emphasized the discipline needed to follow every step carefully. She also enjoyed solving problems with the tools available. “There is a kind of tactical creativity that I find energizing,” she said. 

Contributing to human spaceflight research helped sustain her motivation. So did the relationships with her crewmates. “It would be difficult to convince someone who has never lived in isolation that most days, I don’t feel isolated. I have three teammates that I rely on every day to get through the mission.” 

She also credited exercise, behavioral health, nutrition, and medical specialists for their coordinated support throughout the mission. 

“When I look back on the mission, the most salient point I’ve learned is that a future Mars crew requires a highly integrated ground team,” Ellis said. 

James Spicer: Flight Engineer and Systems Specialist 

Spicer brought experience in satellite communications and spacecraft development to the habitat’s maintenance work. At egress, he was thanked for keeping its systems running smoothly and described as the “flight engineer extraordinaire and resident data scientist.” 

He compared the year to living aboard a submarine or boat, where limited supplies and space shaped daily decisions. The crew tracked consumables from dish soap to respirator filters and carefully managed food and water. 

The crew had access to resources that provided news, and Spicer was surprised by how little he missed constant news and social media updates. The break from distractions helped him focus on the mission. 

Inside the habitat, stories and jokes around the kitchen table brought laughter to demanding days. He told his crewmates they had made the year “not a chore, but a joy.” 

“We’re inspired every day knowing that the data we’re generating is informing Martian mission planning and increasing the safety, health, performance, and comfort of future Martian crews,” he said. 

Matthew Montgomery: Science Officer and Versatile Engineer 

Montgomery brought experience in hardware engineering, robotics, technology startups, and independent films. At egress, he was described as the “Swiss Army knife of crewmates” for his technical knowledge and problem-solving skills. 

He helped crewmates identify rock samples collected during simulated Marswalks and set up the habitat’s 3D printing capabilities. His background in indoor agriculture also carried into a seed-germination experiment that used a control and simulated Martian soil.  

Maintaining a consistent data set remained a priority. Montgomery learned to investigate anything that gave him pause, describing instances when speaking up helped identify concerns with equipment, safety, and data quality. 

He also learned to give himself more grace when an outcome fell short.  

At egress, he credited the crew’s different perspectives with producing solutions stronger than any member could have developed alone. 

“It’s really the people that make exploration possible,” he said. 

Looking Toward Mars 

Two weeks of post-mission evaluations and debriefs will help researchers interpret the crew’s data alongside their experiences. The study builds on the first CHAPEA mission, which concluded July 6, 2024.  

Grace Douglas, CHAPEA’s principal investigator, said the research will help NASA weigh human health and performance risks against resources, including crew time, communication capacity, and food and water system designs. She also noted that many resource challenges facing space explorers mirror problems on Earth. 

Sara Whiting, CHAPEA project scientist, said the data comes as NASA plans how astronauts will live and work at the Moon Base, humanity’s first lunar outpost near the Moon’s South Pole. 

“This is really the now moment for this kind of data,” she said. 

This story is an update to the Antarctic ozone hole feature in our World of Change series, which documents how Earth changes over months, seasons, and years.

The stratospheric ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet light, which damages DNA in plants and animals (including humans) and leads to sunburns and skin cancer. Prior to 1979, scientists had not observed atmospheric ozone concentrations below 220 Dobson Units. But in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists using ground-based measurements at Halley Research Station reported that Earth’s natural sunscreen was thinning dramatically over Antarctica each spring. NASA satellite instruments revealed the continental scale of this Antarctic ozone thinning, and it came to be known as the ozone hole.

The data visualizations below shows the ozone hole each year from 1979 through 2026 (no data are available for 1995). The measurements were made from 1979-2004 by the TOMS (NASA’s Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) instruments on Nimbus-7 and several additional satellites; from 2005-2011 by the OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) on the Aura satellite; from 2012-2025 by the OMPS (Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite) on the Suomi NPP satellite; and in 2026 by the OMPS on the NOAA-20 satellite. Red and yellow areas indicate the ozone hole.

As the images show, the word hole isn’t literal; no place is empty of ozone. Scientists use the word hole as a metaphor for the area in which ozone concentrations drop below the historical threshold of 220 Dobson Units. Using this metaphor, they can describe the hole’s area and depth. These maps show the state of the ozone hole each year on the day of maximum depth—the day the lowest ozone concentrations were measured.

The series begins in 1979. The maximum depth of the hole that year was 194 Dobson Units (DU)—not far below the previous historical low. For several years, the maximum depth stayed in the 190s, but then rapidly grew deeper: 173 DU in 1982, 154 in 1983, 124 in 1985. By 1991, a new threshold was passed, as the ozone concentration fell below 100 DU for the first time. Since then, concentrations below 100 DU have become more common. The deepest ozone hole occurred in 1994, when concentrations fell to just 73 DU on September 30.

Records in depth and area have never occurred in the same year (the largest ozone hole occurred in 2006), but the long-term trend in both characteristics is consistent: from 1980 through the early 1990s, the hole rapidly grew in area and depth. In the early years of the 21st century, annual ozone holes roughly stabilized (see NASA Ozone Watch for annual averages). Year-to-year fluctuations in area and depth are caused by variations in stratospheric temperature and circulation. Colder conditions result in a larger area and lower ozone values in the core of the hole.

That was the case in 2026, when an unusually strong Antarctic polar vortex created ideal conditions for ozone depletion over a large area. Measured by its mean size from September 7 to October 13, which is peak ozone depletion season, the 2026 hole was the seventh largest in 48 years of monitoring. However, it was not as deep as other large holes on record. The map at the top of this page shows the hole on September 18, the day of its annual maximum area. 

The ozone hole opened the world’s eyes to the global effects of human activity on the atmosphere. Scientists learned that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—long-lived chemicals that had been used in refrigerators and aerosol sprays since the 1930s—had a dark side. In the layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth (the troposphere), CFCs circulate for decades without degrading or reacting with other chemicals. When they reach the stratosphere, however, their behavior changes. In the upper stratosphere (beyond the protection of the ozone layer), ultraviolet light causes CFCs to break apart, releasing chlorine, a very reactive atom that repeatedly catalyzes ozone destruction.

The global recognition of the destructive potential of CFCs led to the 1987 Montreal Protocol, a treaty phasing out the consumption and production of ozone-depleting chemicals. Scientists estimate that about 80 percent of the chlorine in the stratosphere today comes from human, not natural, sources. Human-produced bromine compounds, which are far less abundant but much more destructive to ozone, also contribute to the Antarctic ozone hole.

Models suggest that the concentration of chlorine and other ozone-depleting substances in the stratosphere will not return to pre-1980 levels until later in the 21st century. In 2018, scientists reported the first direct satellite evidence of ozone recovery, observing a 20 percent decrease in ozone depletion during the Antarctic winter months from 2005 to 2016. In 2019, abnormal weather patterns in the upper atmosphere over Antarctica dramatically limited ozone depletion, leading to the smallest hole since 1982—illustrating the impact of year-to-year variations in the meteorology of the Antarctic stratosphere. Scientists estimate that the Antarctic ozone layer will return to 1980 levels in the 2070s.

NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin, using data from NASA Ozone Watch.

References & Resources

• NASA (2026, November 4) NASA, NOAA Track 2026 Antarctic Ozone Hole. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• NASA (2026) NASA Ozone Watch. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• NASA Earth Observatory (2026, November) World of Change: Antarctic Ozone Hole. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• NASA Earth Observatory (2019, September 8) 2019 Ozone Hole is the Smallest on Record. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• NASA Earth Observatory (2018, February 13) Measurements Show Reduction in Ozone-Eating Chemical. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• NASA Earth Observatory (2009) The World We Avoided by Protecting the Ozone Layer. Accessed November 6, 2026.
• Newman, P. A. et al. (2006) When will the Antarctic ozone hole recover? Geophysical Research Letters, 33(12).
• Strahan, S. E. and Douglass, A. R. (2018) Decline in Antarctic Ozone Depletion and Lower Stratospheric Chlorine Determined From Aura Microwave Limb Sounder Observations. Geophysical Research Letters, 45(1), 382-390.
• World Meteorological Organization (2022) Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2022. GAW Report No. 278, 509 pp. Geneva, Switzerland.

On Sunday, NASA announced the opening of its $1 million Moon Base Student Challenge during a MAX POWER event at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida. As part of a Golden Age of Science, the competition invites student teams at U.S. high schools and post-secondary schools to contribute designs for the Moon Base.

“We’re looking for students ready to think creatively, work as a team, and take on real problems connected to NASA’s future on the Moon,” said NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman. “You do not have to wait until graduation to contribute. Curiosity, creativity, and the willingness to tackle hard problems without obvious answers are exactly the qualities we need as we build what comes next.”

NASA is building a Moon Base where astronauts will live, work, and explore at the lunar South Pole region. A permanent human presence on the Moon paves the way for future crewed missions to Mars and requires talent from various industries and backgrounds.

“As we build and design the foundations of Moon Base, we want to leverage all the ingenuity and innovation to think of every consideration our explorers might need to live and work there,” said Carlos García-Galán, manager, Moon Base Program. “Students bring exactly the bold ideas that we’re looking for, and I’m looking forward to their fresh perspective. Ultimately, Moon Base is for them, people who will experience a world where humans are on the Moon to stay.”

The multiphase challenge supports NASA’s commitment to cultivating the technical skills of tomorrow’s aerospace workforce. For this challenge, student teams will design innovative solutions for Moon Base across six categories: power generation and storage, construction, life-support systems, surface mobility, communications networks, and astronaut safety. The challenge gives participants an opportunity to develop necessary skills for careers in the space industry while helping advance new concepts for Moon Base technologies.

Participants are required to register for the challenge through the NASA STEM Gateway. Registration is open until Jan. 25, 2027.

“Students are the next generation of explorers and innovators. Their unique perspectives are key to helping us envision a future away from Earth, and I’m excited to see the creativity and ingenuity spurred by this challenge,” said Elaine Ho, associate administrator for the Office of STEM Engagement at NASA Headquarters.

The Moon Base Student Challenge addresses authentic environmental and mission design parameters for life and operations on the lunar surface. The deliverables reflect industry skills – such as trade studies, concept proposals, and stakeholder briefings – allowing participants across technical, vocational, and various academic tracks to build career-relevant skills without requiring prior specialized engineering or technical experience.

The Office of STEM Engagement designed the challenge in collaboration with the Moon Base Program. The Institute of Competition Sciences administers the challenge through a contract with the NASA Center of Excellence for Collaborative Innovation within the agency’s Research and Technology Mission Directorate.

For complete competition details, eligibility requirements, and official rules, visit:

https://moonbasechallenge.org

-end-

George Alderman / Cheryl Warner
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
george.a.alderman@nasa.gov / cheryl.m.warner@nasa.gov

Nilufar Ramji / Kenna Pell
Johnson Space Center, Houston
281-483-5111
nilufar.ramji@nasa.gov / kenna.m.pell@nasa.gov

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